The Shanghai Cooperation Organization and OSCE: Organizational Efforts vs COVID-19 in Central Asia

COVID-19 has proven to be a cunning foe. Its effects have been felt at different times and, depending on measures taken and the situation on the ground, it has produced different outcomes. Months after the first outbreak came to light, we are still taking stock of the initial impact of COVID-19—and this is ignoring the fact that the shockwaves it has caused are yet to be fully felt. The unfortunate truth is that it may be some years yet before everything has settled. What is clear now at least is, while lockdowns and the closure of national borders may solve the issue on a local level, to clamp down on COVID-19 more fully, unified, and perhaps even regional responses are necessary. The EU, the poster boy for regional integration, is often used as an example, but there are certainly other actors worthy of consideration. Central Asia (CA) is one of these regions, despite being not as central in the mind’s eye of many analysts.

With that being said, there are many actors and organizations that work in Central Asia. Generally speaking, many of these are devoted to security and military matters. While certainly important, those that are strictly military-focused, such as the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), will be set aside in the context of this paper for the simple fact that they are purely military alliances. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), too, has proven to be largely quiet on COVID-19. While there are some smaller actors, that leaves us with two organizations that are worth examining: the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). The two are interesting because, while both are involved in Central Asia, they also branch out to other regions. Similarly, none of them are purely Central Asian organizations per se: the OSCE has a strong emphasis on the European and Western perspective, and the SCO is a China-led organization.

How are these organizations facing up to the pandemic?^[1] And, what do their responses to the pandemic say about their governing actors’ influence in the region?^[2]

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization

The SCO is, in the words of the most recent EU policy paper on it, “certainly one of the less known regional organizations worldwide.” Despite this, the SCO is heavily involved in Central Asia and, in fact, stretches beyond it, with various members, such as the dominant two, namely, China and Russia, but also India, Pakistan, and aspirants such as Iran. Beginning with a border demarcation focus, the SCO has since gone from being a primarily anti-terrorist organization with significant but not remarkable military aspects,^[3] to one which has become increasingly economy-focused. This has become more pronounced as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has been a point of emphasis at the yearly Summit meetings of the SCO (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019).

The SCO has also begun to branch out into other spheres, reflecting its varied and, at times, convoluted foci. Examples include the previously-mentioned security issues, connectivity (in both the transport and digital senses of the word, with an emphasis on post-COVID economic discussions), cultural exchange efforts (such as the promotion of holidays, children’s art, which aims to “share their [children’s] views on the spread of the coronavirus and the struggle against it”), and tourism, as well as support for education and the fostering of closer ties between universities in the SCO sphere even during the pandemic.This varied approach to an international organization, in contrast to a focused type, can be both a hinderance and a strength; it can mean both diversification and dilution, or a pragmatic evolution. This varied approach has continued to blossom as—very serendipitously considering the present circumstances—the SCO and its member states adopted a statement regarding their Joint Efforts against Epidemics in 2018.

This proved fortuitous as, following in the wake of China’s active post-COVID diplomacy, the SCO has also demonstrated a marked interest in at least appearing to provide support to its members. The SCO’s first comments regarding COVID-19 were lodged on January 31, with the SCO releasing an official statement on February 14. The statement itself was largely one of support by the members for China (as with this one made in March). From then onwards, there has been a steady stream of SCO statements regarding COVID-19 that are often somewhat congratulatory in nature. For example, the aforementioned press release in reaffirming commitments to one another, meetings between the SCO Secretary General Vladimir Norov and the former OSCE Secretary General Thomas Greminger, meetings of health officials from the SCO space, and other initiatives.

However, despite this active and visible media posture, the SCO itself has largely not donated aid itself, or procured experts and sent them on its behalf. Instead, it is continuing to act as it always has up until recently, i.e., a forum for its member states to popularize their actions, as well as to help foster bilateral agreements between them.

Could the SCO change its approach? The organization has recently added an intriguing note to their website, worth quoting in full:

Currently the special working group on healthcare is conducting selection of projects aimed to set up a structure in the SCO framework similar to the World Health Organisation (the working title is “SCO WHO”) which would work in the interest of improving medical services in the SCO member states, developing disease-prevention capabilities, and satisfying the needs of population in high-tech medical treatments.

This obviously demonstrates a great deal of ambition, but also raises two questions. The first of these questions is related to capacity, and whether the SCO even has the aptitude to create an institution of this magnitude.^[4] The second question is rather simple on the surface, but raises others: why would the SCO want to do this? Is the WHO insufficient for the SCO sphere, and therefore member states believe that a more regionally focused health organization is necessary?

Furthermore, the SCO does not appear to have any rapid response force or any formal mechanisms to deal with emergencies like this, though there were discussions to create one. This is especially disappointing considering the fact that the SCO previously mentioned in its 2018 Statement for “Joint Efforts Against the Threat of Epidemics in the SCO Space” that it recognized the threat—and yet the amount of direct, attributable aid has so far been minimal. These summits are of great importance since the SCO is one of the few regional organizations in the world that attracts the leaders of so many countries, many of which are distinctly outside the Western realm. The Summits are also important as they are often useful fora to propagate large scale projects or visions. The next one has been confirmed to occur in an online format in November, according to Russian President Vladimir Putin. As the BRICS Summit will occur on November 17, it is probable that the SCO Summit will also be held around that time. With months of dealing with the pandemic already, one can guess COVID-19 will take center stage in the member states’ deliberations.

Indeed, there are a number of initiatives that the SCO has brought forth that could perhaps be of use in the current situation. The SCO Interbank Consortium, for example, primarily functions as a way to develop infrastructure, technology, and loans to stimulate these areas, as well as to encourage trade; it could also provide emergency funds across borders to deal with the economic aftershocks of COVID-19, and it in fact had a conference discussing these issues. In addition, if economic problems linked to the slowdown of global trade continue to rise, then the resultant increase in unemployment could lead to a spike in radicalization. This point was made by the SCO Secretary General Vladimir Norov at a joint conference held with the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and other bodies. He stated that terrorist groups could take advantage of the instability caused by the current socio-economic crisis. Here, the SCO’s Regional Anti-Terrorism Structure (RATS), which collaborates with the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), could also prove relevant; the UN also acknowledges its effectiveness.

To understand the SCO as a forum and amplifier for the policies of member states is not to diminish its importance as a regional actor. For example, despite the fact that aid in the form of equipment from the SCO seems rather limited, the organization has successfully coordinated multiple meetings of health experts, as mentioned before. They have also published a report on the actions they took to fight the pandemic. The SCO also leverages its influence as a platform to give more exposure to Chinese companies such as Alibaba, and developing connections between Alibaba and the SCO Youth Group (or SCOLAR). What is also clear is the close association the SCO is trying to encourage with the UN as a way to secure its own legitimacy.

Therefore, the SCO’s goals can perhaps be best understood as enhancing the ability of its member states to resolve the pandemic for themselves. This differs with how multilateral organizations are assumed to deal with problems, i.e., through their own institutions, and through aid given directly by themselves. The UN falls under this category. Viewed in this light, the SCO is, in fact, performing as it is set out to be. Enhancing dialogue by increasing the number of meetings, the SCO is, in theory, empowering member states. There are exceptions, of course, as with Tajikistan until it could not hide the presence of the pandemic any longer.

However, the most useful feature of the SCO in the pandemic period may be its public outreach, and its efforts to shape the debate regarding COVID-19. Suffice it to say, the SCO figures into how Beijing is reaching out to other countries, as it is also being used as a tool to boost the profile of China. For example, while ostensibly about how to combat COVID-19, the most recent webinar the SCO organized (August 11, 2020), with experts across the region, was mostly related to public diplomacy and expounding a sense of community and shared destiny.^[5] Thus the webinar seemed to be more focused on countering negative media coverage rather than the pandemic itself.

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

This paper will now look at the actions of the OSCE regarding the pandemic. To summarize, the OSCE started cold, became hot, and then, for an extended period, went completely silent on the issue.

The generally accepted date for the official, or recognized, outbreak of COVID-19 was in late December 2019 and early January 2020. While the OSCE does not, in its extensive breadth of activities, claim to be directly involved in pandemic-related issues, such issues most certainly have effects on its professed realm of responsibilities, especially on security matters. Therefore, the fact that the OSCE only began to deal with COVID officially from March 16–17, 2020 is troubling. This is particularly concerning because it was only when Austria, where the OSCE Secretariat is located, began its own lockdowns, that the OSCE sprang into action.

From this point forward, the OSCE had a fairly regular stream of aid-related offerings to Central Asia, such as to Tajikistan (in April and August), Kyrgyzstan (April), and twice to Uzbekistan (in mid– and late April). There seems to have been a clear push for action in April. These aid packages were in the form of either protective equipment, such as face masks or disinfectants. Understandably for an organization with as widespread a membership as the OSCE, these activities were interspersed with offerings to other states in Europe, such as Albania and Montenegro. Furthermore, the OSCE’s COVID-19 efforts were spread between other emphases, such as minority and gender rights, as well as observing the conflict zones in Ukraine.

The good news regarding the OSCE’s COVID-19 countermeasures ends here. News relating to COVID-19, and any measures the OSCE was taking, suddenly ended on May 29 with the aforementioned delivery to Albania. This silence continues until August 4, referred to earlier in the paper, when the OSCE sent medical deliveries to Tajikistan. This is a gap of more than two months. The simplest explanation for this gap is that the OSCE was not involved with any new initiatives during this period, nor did it have any news to report regarding its activities. Having already dispersed aid to various states, perhaps the OSCE had been in the middle of restocking or re-adjusting its stance on COVID-19.

This explanation does not adequately deal with why the OSCE was quiet for more than two months on the subject. While the earlier efforts were laudable, why would things stop so suddenly? Furthermore, if the explanation lies with the fact that the OSCE does not deal with pandemics, why send equipment and create dialogue in the first place? Viewed in this way, the breakdown in effort that the OSCE put forth could be demonstrative of its generally overstretched nature.

Furthermore, the OSCE is devoted to human security and related causes; COVID-19 has caused massive issues, in, for example, the return of Central Asian migrant workers from Russia. These migrants are especially vulnerable to the economic problems brought on by the pandemic, and which the UN rightly sees as considerable. A failure to stay at least visible, and hopefully also relevant, in supporting segments of the population in need is a misstep that may have consequences for the OSCE image in the region.

Finally, the pandemic period is most assuredly not a time to be having a succession crisis at the OSCE. This crisis officially began on July 18 but will now extend until December 2020. Particularly damaging is the fact that it is not just the most senior Secretary General position that is left open, but also three others, which means that all of the OSCE’s senior leadership is gone. While the everyday machinery of the organization is certainly moving forward, with no leadership to take charge and provide direction during this turbulent time, the OSCE is not only rudderless but can also be perceived as less than unified in the face of a true test. Even if these positions were filled soon, the breakdown and inability to solve the problem earlier is demonstrative of rather large differences of opinion in the membership.

SCO and OSCE: How Do They Compare?

Looking at these two organizations as reflecting a competition between value systems, one can notice that the China-led SCO is more interested than the OSCE in shaping discourse on the reaction to COVID-19, as evidenced by its frequent news articles and webinars, and importantly, meetings between health ministers. This parallels Beijing’s active campaign to get in front of narratives associating China with the virus, as well as its approach to present itself as the savior as, for example, through so-called mask diplomacy.

In contrast to this, the OSCE, as a Western-leaning organization based on the values of democracy and individual rights, is proving to be less effective in the face of the battering it is taking in relation to COVID-19. In particular, since the OSCE is a European security-focused organization, it may reflect poorly on perceptions of European efforts. The aforementioned failure to elect a Secretary General is also particularly damaging for the OSCE in that it furthers a perception that Western countries are floundering in the face of the pandemic. If the OSCE is indeed concerned with security issues, it should be much more active, doing its best to nip these future problems in the bud now.

It is here that SCO and OSCE differences come to the fore. The SCO, while certainly lacking in some areas regarding its response to COVID-19, is nevertheless concerned with being active, a demonstration that the organization is interested in its credibility on the world stage. The SCO could certainly perform better, at least as an avenue for funds from wealthier members, such as Russia, India, and China. Its members, particularly China, are very aware that they can better project an image of efficiency in the face of this disaster through the SCO. In comparison, the OSCE appears as less concerned about its image in the region.

There are no easy solutions for the COVID-19 pandemic. It seems that every day brings a new wrinkle to the difficulties that the world at large is facing. The trick will be in mitigating the ills, rather than fully cancelling them out. For while the medical side of the calamity can be largely dealt with through a reliable and properly tested vaccine, the economic damage that COVID-19 has wrought will take years to untangle. It is through efforts now, at this critical juncture, that organizations such as the SCO and the OSCE can make advances that will strongly influence the future of their security mandates, as well as their legitimacy, in Central Asia.

---

Addendum: The date for the SCO Summit has since been released. It will be held on November 10.

^[1] This paper was submitted in August 2020, and so reflects data received up until that point.

^[2] While these organizations are, of course, made up of states, and are loosely institutionalized in comparison to, for example, the EU, actions on a state-by-state level will not necessarily be the focus of this article, and instead, a top down approach will be used.

^[3] See Marcel De Haas, “War Games of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Collective Security Treaty Organization: Drills on the Move!” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 29, no. 3 (2016): 378–406.

^[4] Or perhaps it would be more apt to ask whether China and Russia have the ability to do so.

^[5] The webinar itself was off the record and is not posted on common video sites.

---

Bibliography

“Agreement between the Governments of the Member States of the SCO on Creating Favorable Conditions for International Road Transportation.” 2014. Accessed August 29, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/207681/.

Ankel, Sophia. “Austria Responded Fast and Decisively to Its Coronavirus Outbreak, and Is Now Starting to Open up Again. Here Is Exactly What Happened.” Business Insider. April 16, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.businessinsider.com/how-austria-reacted-quickly-and-firmly-to-tackle-coronavirus-crisis-2020-4?r=US&IR=T.

“Beijing Hosts Briefing with SCO Secretary-General.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. October 23, 2019. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20191023/590687.html.

“Bishkek Declaration of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation’s Heads of State Council.” 2019. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/550977/.

Brzozowski, Alexandra. “OSCE Facing Leadership Crisis.” www.euractiv.com. July 20, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/osce-facing-leadership-crisis/.

“Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report –94.” April 23, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200423-sitrep-94-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=b8304bf0_4.

“COVID-19: OSCE Provides Personal Protective Equipment to Penal Colonies for Women and Youth in Uzbekistan.” OSCE. April 17, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/project-coordinator-in-uzbekistan/450328.

“Daily and Spot Reports from the Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine.” OSCE. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/ukraine-smm/reports.

“First Meeting of SCO University Coordination Committee Held Online.” Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. July 3, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202007/t20200706_470612.html.

“Frequently Asked Questions.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/docs/about/faq.html#7.

Grieger, Gisela. “The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.” European Parliament Briefing — EP Think Tank, June 26, 2015. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2015)564368.

Haas, Marcel De. “War Games of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Collective Security Treaty Organization: Drills on the Move!” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 29, no. 3 (August 02, 2016): 378–406. doi:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200383.

“INFORMATION REPORT following the Meeting of the Council of Heads of Stateof the Shanghai Cooperation OrganisationMember States (Qingdao, 9-10 June 2018).” 2018. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/443683/.

“International Friendship Day Is a Holiday in All SCO Nations: SCO Secretary-General’s Interview in Mass Media of Pakistan, Renmin Ribao and TASS.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. August 1, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200801/666195.html.

“International Policing at the Crossroads of Health and Security.” INTERPOL. May 20, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.interpol.int/en/News-and-Events/News/2020/International-policing-at-the-crossroads-of-health-and-security.

Kemp, Walter. “Executed Structures: Leadership Crisis in the OSCE.” Security and Human Rights Monitor. July 14, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.shrmonitor.org/executed-structures-leadership-crisis-in-the-osce/.

Kyzy, Aruuke Uran. “Coronavirus Exposes Central Asian Migrants’ Vulnerability.” The Diplomat. April 10, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/coronavirus-exposes-central-asian-migrants-vulnerability/.

“Meeting with SCO Foreign Ministers.” President Of Russia. September 09, 2020. Accessed October 14, 2020. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/64016.

“Millions of Migrants across Russia, Central Asia, ‘teetering on the Brink’, as UN Launches Urgent Appeal | UN News.” United Nations. May 15, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/05/1064182.

“OSCE Assists the Government of Tajikistan with Disinfectant and Medical Equipment.” OSCE. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/programme-office-in-dushanbe/450901.

“OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities Offers Recommendations on Short-term Responses to COVID-19 That Support Social Cohesion.” OSCE. March 26, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/hcnm/449170.

“OSCE Mission to Montenegro Delivers Food and Hygiene Items to Country’s Red Cross during COVID-19 Pandemic.” OSCE. April 17, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/mission-to-montenegro/450289.

“OSCE Presence Donates Personal Protection Equipment to Albania’s Border Police.” OSCE. May 29, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/presence-in-albania/453372.

“OSCE Project Co-ordinator in Uzbekistan Provided Humanitarian Aid to Tashkent City Main Department of Internal Affairs.” OSCE. April 30, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/project-coordinator-in-uzbekistan/451231.

“OSCE Provides Personal Protective Equipment to Partners in Kyrgyzstan to Ease Impact of COVID-19 Crisis.” OSCE. April 20, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/programme-office-in-bishkek/450403.

“OSCE Provides Protective Gear to Its Tajik Partners to Fight COVID-19.” OSCE. August 4, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/programme-office-in-dushanbe/458890.

“OSCE Secretary General Thanks SCO for Support in Response to COVID-19 Pandemic.” 上海合作组织Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. May 29, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200529/651591.html.

“OSCE’s Preventative Measures against COVID-19.” OSCE. March 17, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/secretariat/448675.

“Parliamentary Leaders Call on Foreign Ministers to Rectify Institutional Crisis Facing OSCE.” OSCE. July 24, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/parliamentary-assembly/458026.

“Pneumonia of Unknown Cause – China.” World Health Organization. January 5, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.who.int/csr/don/05-january-2020-pneumonia-of-unkown-cause-china/en/.

“Programme for Expanded Tourism Cooperation between Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Member States.” 2016. Accessed August 29, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/208388/.

Putz, Catherine. “Zero to 15: Tajikistan Finally Confirms First Cases of COVID-19.” The Diplomat. April 30, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/zero-to-15-tajikistan-finally-confirms-first-cases-of-covid-19/.

Putz, Catherine. “Border Closures in Eurasia Complicate Migrant Worker Movement.” The Diplomat. March 24, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/border-closures-in-eurasia-complicate-migrant-worker-movement/.

“Qingdao Declaration of the Council of Heads of State of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.” 2018. Accessed August 29, 2020. http://www.iri.edu.ar/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/a2018eurasiaDoc2QingdaoDeclaration.pdf.

“Russia Expects Chinese Leader to Upcoming SCO, BRICS Summits.” BRICS. June 23, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://infobrics.org/post/31158/.

“Russia Postpones SCO, BRICS Summits amid COVID-19 Pandemic.” Xinhua. May 28, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-05/28/c_139094300.htm.

“SCO Children’s Art Exhibition Opens in Beijing.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. June 16, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200616/657608.html.

“SCO Considers Rapid Response Measures to Infectious Disease Outbreaks.” 上海合作组织Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. March 13, 2020. Accessed August 29, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200313/640138.html.

“SCO Members Thwart More than 550 Terrorist Attacks over 3-year Period.” TASS. October 25, 2017. Accessed August 29, 2020. https://tass.com/world/972509.

“SCO Health Ministers Advocate Combining Efforts of SCO Member States to Combat COVID-19 Pandemic.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. July 25, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200725/665852.html.

“SCO Interbank Consortium: Interaction without Borders.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. April 29, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200429/644981.html.

“SCO Praises China’s Measures against Coronavirus.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. March 13, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200313/640134.html.

“SCO Secretariat to Hold AGORA Online-Conference on E-trade during the Pandemic Co-organized by SCOLAR Network and Alibaba Group.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. May 25, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200525/649454.html.

“SCO Secretary-General Takes Part in a Videoconference on SCO Digital Economy and E-commerce in COVID-19 Environment.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. July 18, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200718/664411.html.

“SCO Secretary-General Vladimir Norov Attends the First Meeting of SCO University Coordinating Council.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. June 30, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200630/660881.html.

“SCO Secretary-General Vladimir Norov Praises Chinese Government’s Resolute Measures to Combat Epidemic Caused by New Type of Coronavirus.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. January 31, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200131/625575.html.

“SCO Secretary-General Vladimir Norov’s Remarks at the Opening of the UN’s Virtual Counter-Terrorism Week.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. July 7, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200707/661991.html.

“SCO Varsity an Important Platform: Norov.” DNA News Agency. July 09, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://dnanews.com.pk/sco-varsity-important-platform-norov/.

“SCO, Interpol Strive to Play Active Role in Facilitating Regional Security.” 上海合作组织Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. March 14, 2019. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20190314/518312.html.

“STATEMENT by the Heads of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation Member States on Joint Efforts Against the Threat of Epidemics in the SCO Space.” Shanghai Cooperation Organization. 2018. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/443569/.

“Statement of the Co-Chairs of the Geneva International Discussions.” OSCE. March 31, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.osce.org/chairmanship/449407.

“STATEMENT of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation on the Novel Coronavirus Epidemic.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. February 14, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200214/626794.html.

“Structure of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/structure/.

“THE MEMBER STATES OF THE SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION (SCO) MEASURES TAKEN IN THE FIELD OF HEALTHCARETO COUNTER THE SPREAD OF THE NOVEL CORONAVIRUS (COVID-19).” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. July 2020. Accessed October 14, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/680612/.

“Tajikistan Strains Credibility with Apparent COVID-19 Turnaround.” Eurasianet. May 22, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://eurasianet.org/tajikistan-strains-credibility-with-apparent-covid-19-turnaround.

“The Astana Declaration of the Heads of State of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.” 2017. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/297146/.

“The Role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in Counteracting Threats to Peace and Security.” United Nations. Accessed August 29, 2020. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/role-shanghai-cooperation-organization-counteracting-threats-peace-and-security.

“The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.” The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. June 26, 2015. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2015)564368.

“The Tashkent Declaration of the Fifteenth Anniversary of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.” 2016. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/207886/.

“Ufa Declaration by the Heads of Member Statesof the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.” Ufa Declaration by the Heads of Member Statesof the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. 2015. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/load/200119/.

“UN Response to COVID-19.” United Nations. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://www.un.org/en/coronavirus/UN-response.

“UN Secretary-General Praises Efforts by SCO Member States to Counter COVID-19.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. May 14, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200514/647211.html.

“Upcoming Webinar to Address Coronavirus Pandemic Impact on SCO Cooperation, Challenges and Opportunities and Public Diplomacy’s Role in Promoting SCO Cooperation.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. August 4, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200804/666536.html.

“With SCO Support, the Alibaba Group Hosted a Workshop on Countering the Spread of the Novel Coronavirus Infection.” 上海合作组织 Шанхайская организация сотрудничества. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. May 14, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. http://eng.sectsco.org/news/20200514/647237.html.

Wolf, Benjamin. “The Coronavirus in Austria & Vienna: What Happened in March: Metropole – Vienna.” Metropole. March 31, 2020. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://metropole.at/coronavirus-in-austria-march/.

Wong, Brian. “China’s Mask Diplomacy.” The Diplomat. March 25, 2020. Accessed October 14, 2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/chinas-mask-diplomacy/.

“XII BRICS Summit to Be Held on 17 November 2020 Via Videoconference.” BRICS. October 6, 2020. Accessed October 14, 2020. http://infobrics.org/post/31951/.

Photo by Yohann Libot